Don DeLillo’s “Mao II” and the Concept of the “Death of the Author”

It is almost too strong a temptation to think about Bill Gray, the protagonist of Don DeLillo’s novel Mao II, as being the author’s fictional alter ego, or at least the character in the book whose opinions and feelings we may most safely attribute to DeLillo himself, for he, like Bill Gray, is quite well-known for being a reclusive writer who consciously tries to elude the media circus and somehow seems to want to be, well, less well-known[1]. But I believe that this approach to the character and to the novel is, if not completely futile, certainly too reductive. First of all, there are contemporary American writers who fit the category of “genius hermits” much better than DeLillo: he might provide insights into his personal life more seldomly than, say, Norman Mailer or John Irving, but he is definitely not a J. D. Salinger or, much more to the point, a Thomas Pynchon, whose “disappearance” more or less forty years ago, combined with the almost absolute lack of available biographical data about him and, of course, with his paranoiac oeuvre, have turned him into a living legend… if he is still alive. He is in fact so legendary, and his legend is so similar to Bill Gray’s in the book, that it does not really make sense to try to exaggerate DeLillo’s “shyness” instead of taking the Pynchon case as the most possible source of inspiration.

But there is a deeper problem with the equation “DeLillo = Bill Gray”, even when stated in a softer way. The problem is not only that such an equation implies that literary criticism is there in order to study novels not for the sake of the texts themselves but to decipher what is in the author’s mind, to grasp the author’s “intention”. Although this kind of approach is usually theoretically attacked, it remains –somehow surprisingly– quite popular in practice. Applied to a book like Mao II, however, the “authorial criticism” is especially silly and inoperative, because (and this is the main thesis of this paper) the novel itself is arguably a reflection on something that strongly resembles the concept of the “death of the author”. And this not simply because the book’s protagonist is a writer who eventually dies but because, among other things, of the recurrent comparison between writers and terrorists as creators of narratives, because of the questions about the position words have in a world full of images, and because of the leitmotif about the future belonging to “crowds” that almost always also seem to “belong” to leaders or “masters” – who are in turn “authors” of narratives like the terrorists, or even terrorists themselves.

This having been said, I think it is important to clarify what I have in mind when I speak about the “author”. I do not mean a person who actually writes words that, with her signature underneath, are published and consumed afterwards. I equally do not mean the extended definition of the term, in which “authors” of movies, paintings, comics, pop songs, videogames or whatever other prominent cultural artifacts also find a place. I mean, in fact, both, but not only and not mainly, and I will attempt, perhaps with a little rashness, to think about the author more generally. In this paper, thus, the term author stands –more or less– for the Carthesian individual who thinks and therefore exists, who has a distinct subjectivity with which to look at the “outer” world, whose identity is fixed and stable and, maybe most importantly, whose actions and decisions are expressions of free-will, of individual autonomy. The modern person, in other words, who creates, in the living world “out there”, a “narrative” of his own life – who is able to determine where he is going to, what he is going to be, what he leaves behind[2].

I am conscious of the fact that this definition is not the orthodox one, and it certainly does not fully correspond to the one given by the French thinker Roland Barthes in his essay “Death of the Author”, which was written in 1967 and published one year later, and which was highly influential for post-structuralism in general and, probably, for so-called postmodern writers like DeLillo himself, too. My definition does not “fully” match his (which was of course developed and maybe even implicitly revised by himself in later works), but it does partly, because, even though Barthes does limit himself to the author as the writer of “real” texts, there are lots of passages in his essay that can easily be interpreted as concerning the modern person in general, or at least as being openings that allow considerations which lead into that direction. This is why I want to begin this paper by briefly presenting some points Barthes makes that I think may be useful for the discussion of Mao II, and then proceed to taking a closer look at Bill’s “death” as an author – always intermingled with remarks on the novel’s other characters that, maybe inevitably, in a short paper like this must remain peripheral[3].

Roland Barthes’ “Death of the Author” and the modern individual

As early as 1966, in his essay “Criticism and Truth”, Barthes pleaded for a “science of discourse” that takes the language rather than the authors of literature as its topic[4]. This is clearly not new but stands in the tradition of Russian formalism (which was a huge influence on Barthes’ thought) and New Criticism. What is different is the reference to “discourse”, which betrays Barthes’ allegiance to the basic linguistic turn’s assumption that subjects are not prior to language but constituted by it. And it is precisely this assumption and its implications that led to Barthes’ “radicalization” in “The Death of the Author”, in which the author is proclaimed “dead”, not merely “to be left aside by critics”. Moreover, writing itself turns, in this essay, to be the lethal weapon, to be the process through which the author virtually disappears: “Writing is the destruction of every voice, of every point of origin. Writing is that neutral, oblique space where our subject slips away, the negative where all identity is lost, starting with the very identity of the body writing”[5].

The inevitable absence of the writing body, the distance between text and living person, then, makes an author who masters the meaning of his work a clear impossibility. The removal of the author is in fact meant, as Seán Burke states, “no longer [as] a means to an end, a strategy, but a property of discourse itself”[6]. The concept of the author is, for Barthes, not the casualty of our focus on language for the sake of serious literary studies, but rather, at best, a humanist illusion unsustainable in a world that is characterized by polysemia and subject dissolution and that even has an incipient science (the “discourse science”) to cope with it or, at worst, it is a critics’ perverse lie.

Thus, by declaring that the author is dead, and by not trying to conceal the Nietzschean resonances of this utterance, Barthes is not simply doing justice to a “historical fact” that can only be grasped now thanks to a change of paradigms. He is, explicitly, pushing a political program against capitalist ideology and traditional criticism in which, following Barthes, the author is the source and master of the text (in other words, God), and the critic’s role is equivalent to the theologian’s who looks upon nature for hints that may lead him to conclusions about the assumed creator:

“To give a text an Author is to impose a limit on that text, to furnish it with a final signified, to close the writing. Such a conception suits criticism very well, the latter then allotting itself the important task of discovering the Author (or its hypostases: society, history, psyche, liberty) beneath the work: when the Author has been found, the text is ‘explained’ – victory to the critic.”[7]

Indeed, for Barthes, “the reign of the Author has also been that of the Critic”, and it is only logical that his death also represents the end of criticism as we know it. He suggests an approach to texts (and, as he himself adds, “to the world as text”) that avoids assigning ultimate meanings, that avoids “deciphering” or looking for the signified, the supposed truth underneath. For him, this kind of criticism, if it may still be called that way, would be “an activity that is truly revolutionary since to refuse to fix meaning is, in the end, to refuse God and his hypostases—reason, science, law”[8].

Barthes finally announces, furthermore, the “birth of the reader”, which corresponds to and “must be at cost of the death of the Author”. Given that the language of an author is not his original language but a sign system that precedes him, given that he himself is “only a ready-formed dictionary, its words only explainable through other words, and so on indefinitely”, he cannot continue to be considered the instance that gives unity to the text. The reader, on the other hand, if not thought of as a person with biography but as a linguistic category, can and should be considered this unitary force, for she “is the space on which all the quotations that make up a writing are inscribed without any of them being lost”[9].

I want to leave aside, now, because of lack of time and space, all possible and legitimate questions about the plausibility and soundness of every single one of Barthes’ arguments, about the somewhat biased description of criticism as a theology and about the way he, in order for the “killing” to make more sense, hyperbolizes the concept of the author (his author being much more omnipotent than in the notions of any of the most significant schools of literary criticism in the whole 20th century)[10]. I also cannot, in this paper, follow the development of Barthesian thought on the issue of authorship, much less compare it to the concepts of other post-structuralist philosophers, like Foucault or Derrida. What I want to do is rather show the way even some of Barthes’ ideas, as presented in this essay, may be used as the basis for an extended understanding of the term author as the modern person in general, which is the way I will then apply it to the characters of Mao II, as I already pointed out in the introduction.

Let us assume that language is in fact not an instrument but a code system that constitutes persons as subjects which, as Barthes says, are “empty outside the very enunciation which defines” them[11]; then, it follows that all the people who live in and from language (which is to say virtually all people, because we cannot conceive a concept such as “people” without language) are lastly unable to utter original sentences, written or spoken. We can further conclude that we as persons are unable to act originally, individually, personally, out of our own determination, because actions are also, in the last instance, constituted by words or other signs. If the world is a text, and if we cannot take a step out of this text in order to look at it freely and think about it, because the “inside/outside”-dichotomy itself is part of the text, as well as the words and arguments which we may want to use to describe or criticize it “objectively”, then what we call actions are imposed by the text, only feasible if they are thinkable, speakable and (the redundancy notwithstanding) feasible. If the world is a text of which we definitely cannot be the author, then even our memories and the way we give them an order and make a narrative and an identity out of them are copies of copies of copies, little parts of big sign systems that we construct or, better, constantly reconstruct, not because we want to, and certainly not out of our free will, but because this is the way the text functions, and there is no other way. Inside the text, we are not free to choose who we are, what we may think, which actions are legible. We are more characters than free individuals with goals in mind (the goals are not our original goals, but only those goals possible, insistently repeated to and by us), in the text.

There are passages in the essay that allow, in my opinion, this extension of the concept on a perhaps less abstract and claustrophobic level. For instance, Barthes is indeed quite right:

“The author is a modern figure, a product of our society insofar as, emerging from the Middle Ages with English empiricism, French rationalism and the personal faith of the Reformation, it discovered the prestige of the individual, of, as it is more nobly put, the ‘human person’. It is thus logical that in literature it should be this positivism, the epitome and culmination of capitalist ideology, which has attached the greatest importance to the ‘person’ of the author”[12].

But exactly there, as everyone accustomed to historical ways of thinking (at least to everyone accustomed to contemporary historical ways of thinking strongly influenced by thinkers like Barthes) would notice, it is easy to replace here “Carthesian individual”, or even only “individual”, for “author” without doing any violence to the text. And if the author and the individual have so much in common (mastery, a unitary identity, purpose, autonomy, beginning and end), if both are supposed to be signifieds that, alas, are now revealed to be themselves collections of signs, repetitions, signifiers themselves, then both die as a result of this revelation, not only the author. Or, more precisely: it is not that they both die but that, if we think both concepts over, they converge, suddenly become indistinguishable – and then this one “thing”, which cannot possibly still be considered a signified, something that truly exists, dies.

The death of the author, then, resembles not only the death of God but also the death of free will, the death of the modern person, the death of the individual who is his own God. Since this individuality, this subjectivity and personality have neither essence nor existence in the philosophical sense but are discursive constructions, bodies of words themselves. And, once again, what in Barthes’ essay applies to the author may also apply to the individual:

“The scriptor no longer bears within him passions, humours, feelings, impressions, but rather this immense dictionary from which he draws a writing that can know no halt: life never does more than imitate the book, and the book itself is only a tissue of signs imitation that is lost, infinitely deferred”[13].

This cannot be solved easily by saying that the individual may be seen as a “reader” and, thus, be “reborn”. Firstly, because even Barthes himself warns us of trying to imagine the “reader” as an actual person. And secondly, because we, as part of the text of the world, and even when trying to read it, are inside it, so that our reading is part of it too. In Don DeLillo’s literary universe, which emerges from, is part of, and gets down to a world that not only is a text but a highly mediated one, in which the pervasiveness of mass media makes individual, unmediated action even more impossible, as it were, than in the pre-post-modern world, the notion of an autonomous instance that reads, or consciously creates, an original narrative, is even more absurd. We are talking here, as Barthes and DeLillo both wrote on occasion, about an Einsteinian universe, not a Newtonian one anymore[14]. In the following pages I will try to apply these conceptions to the novel Mao II and show how it comes to grips, with literary means (characters, plot, etc.), with this “fact”, which, for an author (DeLillo himself, or Bill Gray) may also be called a damnation.

The death of authorship in Mao II[15]

If there ever was a writer who thoroughly fits the Romantic model of authorship, then he would have to look a lot like Bill Gray. As a matter of fact, Bill Gray even seems to be trying to personify or embody this model: In Mao II’s pre-history, Bill is an author who, after having written only two slim books that have nevertheless achieved the status of cult novels (the strongly personal oeuvre, the great and immortal work of art), leaves everything behind in order to lead, for thirty years, the life of an auto-exile (the writer as an isolated genius or observer) who obsessively works on an ever growing, ever more comprehensive –more total– novel while hiding from everybody, including his editor, and not even letting photographs of his face be taken for publicity or journalistic purposes (the writer as the language’s nurse and master, as the man of words opposed to commerce and other worldly affairs). He is someone who, even inside the logic of this exaggerated life, tends to further exaggerate the importance of his own ego: “I exaggerate the pain of writing, the pain of solitude, the failure, the rage, the confusion, the helplessness, the fear, the humiliation. The narrower the boundaries of my life, the more I exaggerate myself” (p. 37). An autonomous modern individual, he also cannot “understand how people need to blend in, lose themselves in something larger” (p. 89), become part of a mass. By the time Mao II begins, however, he has already made two important exceptions to his rule of zero human contact, and lives together with a younger couple in a quite peculiar ménage à trois.

Scott, one of the members of the afore mentioned couple, is a confessed fan or fanatic consumer of Bill’s novels, to the point that he even feels himself, in a way, as the author: “That book was about me somehow. I had to read slowly to keep from jumping out of my skin. I saw myself. It was my book” (p. 51). In what he calls “his journey out of nonbeing” (p. 57), he sets out to find Bill and, arguably because this mission becomes, for him, vital, the essence of his life, succeeds. Since then he has been living with Bill, “in Bill’s material mesh, drawing the same air, seeing things Bill saw” (p. 60), working for him, ostensibly as his assistant but truly as his kidnapper, as the careful disciplinary instance that works out the ritualized “procedures” that allow Bill to live in complete seclusion, or, as he says, in the “monolith” he himself has built (p. 44-45).

Karen, Scott’s and Bill’s lover, an extraordinarily but weirdly intelligent woman, is a completely different character, with emphasis on “character” because she is neither author nor consumer but the living material for creators of narratives: She is, in Scott’s words, “like something out of Bill Gray” (p. 77). For Bill himself, she is a human being that comes “from the future” (p. 85), which may be directly related to the weakness she has for crowds and catastrophes, for leaders and messiahs, for “unconditional belief” (p. 69). Ultimately, one of the book’s most unforgettable sentences, which could also be called a premise of the whole novel, is that the “future belongs to the crowds” (p. 16), as the narrator states at the beginning of the novel. This is interesting because, as a matter of fact, the beginning of the novel is about Karen and a mass-wedding in which she, at the time a member of a religious cult, marries one of her fellow cultists whom she has met only two days before and who has been picked up and matched to her by the leader of the sect, whose “name” is, not surprisingly, Master. In addition to all that, she also has a kind of special sensibility to mass media: She “watches TV and knows what people are going to say next. Not only gets it right but does their voices” (p. 65). Pictures and television are, thus, much more than mere entertainment for her. They are the media through which she connects with and still is part of the world’s crowds, in spite of the fact that she lives in exile under her new “master”, Bill.

Right at the proper beginning of Mao II, though, the equilibrium between the three inhabitants of the isolated house is shaken by Britta, a photographer who is working on the project of compiling pictures of all living writers, even of the unknown ones, and who comes to the house invited by Bill, who is progressively unhappy with his living conditions, with “this wretched hiding” (p. 45), and is ready to make yet another exception to the “procedures”. But letting her take pictures of him turns out to be more than an exception: It is a qualitative breach, a pivotal point in his life. Not only is Britta smart, cosmopolitan and sexy, not only does she exude the spirit of urbanization, so that Bill cannot help thinking of a life where he can, again, be “near the museums and galleries, stand on movie lines, uncork the wines, redo the rooms, sleep in the gray sheets, loving her, ordering out, let’s order out tonight, walk the dogs, speak the words, hear the doormen whistle down the cabs” (p. 55). It is also that, by taking his picture, she also transforms his whole life and way of living, of which he was sick anyway, into a picture, “flat as birdshit on a Buick” (p. 54).

For Bill, seemingly, the whole point of a life in exile was precisely to escape from the image world, to let the words, the language, prevail: “The image world is corrupt, here is a man who hides his face”, he says (p. 36). The point was, further, to remain autonomous, to remain individual, to remain as unmediated as possible, the real thing, and not to become an image, not to become incorporated, commodified. Now, as he acknowledges while Britta is still shooting the camera at him, “I’ve become someone’s material. Yours, Britta. There’s the life and there’s the consumer event. […] Nothing happens until it is consumed. […] Here I am in your lens. Already I see myself differently. Twice over or once removed” (pp. 43-44).

The photo-session is, then, in a way, the suicide of the author, the end of “God’s famous reluctance to appear” (p. 36). Both Scott and Karen feel that it is that way, and they are afraid of the consequences: in her own somehow naive words, “[i]t’s just a feeling of there’s something wrong. We have a life that’s carefully balanced. There’s a lot of planning and thinking behind the way Bill lives and now there’s a crack all of a sudden” (p. 57). For Scott, the conscious keeper of the myth, the photo-session is plainly “[m]adness. Self-destructive”, because “Bill gets bigger as his distance to the scene deepens” (pp. 56-57).

What they fail to grasp, however, are the reasons for this suicide. As I wrote above, Bill seems to have chosen the ascetic life he lives precisely because he thought that this would enable him to escape commodification and to avoid being transformed into a picture, an aura, a myth. Always wary of the publishing industry and of the mass reproduction and consumption of images and words (“The more books they publish, the weaker we become. The secret force that drives the industry is the compulsion to make writers harmless” [p. 47]), he is simply too much of an individual to participate actively in such a society: As Scott says, “for Bill, the only thing worse than writing is publishing. When the book comes out. When people buy it and read it. He feels totally and horribly exposed. They are taking the book home and turning the pages. They are reading the actual words” (p. 53).

Nevertheless, by the time he invites Britta to literally shoot at him (with the camera), assimilate him into the image world and reduce him, once an author, to a picture that can be reproduced eternally, he is also already aware that he has long lost, that his escape strategy backfired, and that his living project, originally thought to avoid assimilation, has been the process of assimilation itself and has made an icon, a leader, an enormous faceless image and an extremely well-selling commodity out of him and his words. In one of the book’s saddest passages, indeed, the narrator comments on this:

“He couldn’t understand how any of it had happened, how a young man, inexperienced, wary of the machinery of gloss and distortion, protective of his work and very shy and slightly self-romanticizing, could find himself all these years later trapped in his own massive stillness” (p. 45).

The photo-session, the suicide, then, is not really an act of killing but the climax of a long process, the official statement of the author as being long dead. Hence the unsolvable dilemma concerning Bill’s new book, too: Since the myth has acquired such a force, because Bill has become such a divine entity, the book cannot be anything else but a failure, a novel that, in Scott’s words, “falls short. Woefully short” (p. 51), and that “places suspicion on the great early work” (p. 73). The author, the man of words, the creator of languages, the lonely seeker of totality and perfection, is now in fact the pathetic slave of his own myth and of the enormity of the text itself, which has grown up to become a kind of monster that haunts him regularly, as if it wanted to rub in the writer’s mind the fact that he has long lost mastery over the words, that he is now a prisoner of language. And that is why Bill, who “gained celebrity by doing nothing” (p. 52) cannot publish, in spite of the fact that the book is more or less finished, that it cannot become any better, and that they “could make a king’s whatever, multimillions” (p. 52), with it.

For Scott, always trying to protect and enforce the myth (and always assuring that he is only saying what Bill wants him to say), it is quite simple: First, Bill has to keep working for the sake of it – and that Bill has to work is made clear by him in a scene on pages 62-64 in which he speaks to the older man, nominally his boss, as if the power relation between them was exactly the other way around. Which it, in a way, of course is. Then, he continues, “[Bill] withholds the book. If he keeps the book in typescript and lets it take on heat and light. This is how he renews his claim to wide attention. Book and writer are inseparable” (pp. 67-68). Finally, Scott concludes, they can even use the pictures Britta has taken of Bill to the advantage of the myth: “The book is finished but will remain in typescript. Then Britta’s photos appear in a prominent place. Timed just right. We don’t need the book. We have the author. […] The book disappears into the image of the writer” (p. 71).

As I already wrote, Scott, the quintessential consumer, is unable, despite his own conviction, to see what Bill, the wanna-be author and individual, wants or thinks, why he has lived his life the way he has, and why he had invited Britta in the first place. That the photo-session equals a point of no return, a landmark, is something Scott simply cannot grasp; in terms of the plot, however, it is made quite clear by the fact that Britta brings a message from Charles Everson, Bill’s old friend and editor, who wants to be called and visited in New York in order to talk about something so delicate that not even Scott shall hear about it, which is why he does not write a letter. Surprisingly, Bill calls him a month later and arranges a meeting in Charlie’s workplace, a company so ominous that it is not even clear what kind of company it is. The issue Charlie wants to talk about is ominous, as well, but on the other hand appropriate for Bill, because it gives him a possibility to be reintroduced to the image world, to escape seclusion without having to give up autonomy but, to the contrary, having to be even more autonomous than ever: Charlie, the chairman of a committee on free expression, wants Bill to appear in a news conference to be held in London and to be devoted to the fate of Jean-Claude Julian, a young Swiss poet, whose poems Bill is supposed to read aloud, and who is being held hostage by a still quite unknown terrorist group in Beirut.

Charlie mentions, of course, noble motives for Bill to do that:

“I want one missing writer to read the work of another. I want the famous novelist to address the suffering of the unknown poet. I want the English-language writer to read in French and the older man to speak across the night to his young colleague in letters. Don’t you see how beautifully balanced?” (p. 99).

His own motives are less noble, though: Charlie is, in fact, in contact with a man in Athens with whom he has agreed on the mutually advantageous plan to have a news conference, talk about the poet, about the group that has him in captivity as well as about the group Charlie presides, and then, in an incredible media coup, announce that the hostage is being freed, live on television, at that very moment.

Bill recognizes that the whole affair is “fucking fishy” (p. 98), but he nevertheless decides to be part of it. The reason for this is not only that he wants to get as far away as possible from Scott’s controlling vision, but mainly that he really wants to change things through individual actions, to make a statement about writers still being able to “alter the inner life of the culture” and “make raids on human consciousness”, something he feels they did before being “incorporated”, and in which the novelists, in Bill’s opinion, have been replaced by the terrorists (p. 41). He really wants to make a difference, either through his books or through his acts, and he does not want to be what he has become, an empty icon. Charlie is indeed quite right when he says to Bill:

“You think the writer belongs at the far margin, doing dangerous things. In Central America, writers carry guns. They have to. And this has always been your idea of the way it ought to be. The state should want to kill all writers. Every government, every group that holds power or aspires to power should feel so threatened by writers that they hunt them down, everywhere” (p. 97).

Bill Gray, the Romantic Author who has ironically, because of his own exaggerating of the writer’s isolation as well as because of the irresistible force of commodification, lost his language and become an image that is bigger than life but flat, sees arguably the whole hostage affair as being an opening, maybe the last one, to practice free will. Besides, by doing that, he even gets the chance to free a writer from a terrorist group, symbolically taking back something of the sovereignty, cultural importance and unmediatedness he feels has slipped from the novelists to the terrorists as a result of the logic of the image world: “What terrorists gain, novelists lose. The degree to which they influence mass consciousness is the extent of our decline as shapers of sensibility and thought. The danger they represent equals our own failure to be dangerous” (p. 157).

Because this paper is, primarily, about the concept of the death of the author as applied to Mao II, and only secondarily about Bill (even though I am clearly concentrating on him), I think it is important to make a digression, forget the main plot for a while and look at the character’s opinions on terrorism more closely. Maybe Bill is right and the author, instead of being dead, has only changed clothes and cleverly moved to a new and even more physical, more real branch?

Mao II was published in 1991, ten years before the hysteria about terrorism finally exploded following September 11th. This hysteria amounts, in more than one way, to the final incorporation of terrorism: From the point of view of the mass media, terrorism sells, and that it is perceived by millions of people in all continents as a ubiquitous danger is only made possible by the mass media’s insistency on the issue. As Osteen remarks, “terrorists don’t finally control their own spectacles, because the coherence of act and image that they rely upon for their dissemination of dread requires the collusion of the photographers, producers, and executives who transmit and own the images”. They are, further, “far from being outside from capitalism” (as Bill affirms on p. 157), but they rather “perfectly exemplify how it engulfs even those discourses that seem to oppose it. […] [T]heir dread is but another brand of consumer magic”[16].

That the novel was published before this process reached its peak is not to say, however, that the incorporation of terrorism was still waiting to happen. As DeLillo certainly would agree, the incorporation of violence, mass murder, and even political or religious fanaticism is older than the 21st century, and goes, in the American case, at least as far back as the assassination of John F. Kennedy. From then on, there have been lots of different lonely men and women plotting in small rooms and going outside carrying weapons and thinking, for all kinds of reasons, that they are working against the system while becoming multimedia superstars on the way: Lee Harvey Oswald, Charles Manson, Carlos, the Munich kidnappers, the whole leadership of the RAF, Mohammed Atta and Osama Bin Laden, to name only a few of the most well-known. There have even been people like Hinckley, the assailant on Ronald Reagan, who did not even care about politics or about religion, and who tried to kill the president of the United States in order to get the attention he knew he would get and, then, thanks to his celebrity, be able to conquer Jodie Foster’s heart.

Besides, this novel appeared shortly after Salman Rushdie was condemned to death by Ayatollah Khomeini, which was scandalous but, precisely, was felt to be scandalous all over the Western world because the media made it scandalous and exploited it for years. Needless to say, the trademark Salman Rushdie also profited, even though the actual person named Salman Rushdie who had to hide did probably, in more than one sense, not[17].

Interestingly, Khomeini’s burial is one of the numerous crowd scenes of the novel and, like all the other crowd scenes in the book (with the important exception of the already mentioned mass wedding, which is looked at by Karen’s parents trying to find her), it is described as being watched on television by Karen, who “felt she was among them”(p. 189), among the mourners trying to reach to the dead body of their leader and impede his being buried, trying to bring him back because “[h]e should be the last among them to die. They should be dead, not him” (p. 189). By virtue of the special crowd and media sensibility she has and which has already been commented on, she is even able to look at the faces of the Iranians and go “backwards into their lives, into the hovels and unpaved streets” (p. 190). Then, having a sudden insight that truly scares her, she thinks that these events “could not be real if other people watched” them the way she does, with the proximity and the identity she, as a person from the future, feels, rather than watching them as being “sober-sided news analysis delivered by three men in a studio with makeup and hidden mikes” (p. 190). Because,

“[i]f other people watched, if millions watched, if these millions matched the number on the Iranian plain, doesn’t it mean we share something with the mourners, know an anguish, a feel, feel something pass between us, hear the sigh of some historic grief? […] If others saw these pictures, where are the local crowds, why do we still have names and addresses and car keys?” (p. 191)

To be sure, and to come back to Bill’s fate, Karen also has a reason for being sad and for feeling the loss of a leader, because Bill, after deciding to try to free the Swiss poet, simply disappears, leaving without notice neither to his keeper, Scott, nor to his character, her. At the time she watches Khomeini’s burial, she is actually in New York, staying with Britta, and arguably looking for Bill but also for herself, because her “life had no center with Bill on the lam. She was all drift and spin” (p. 142). Scott, on the other hand, stays home and tries to live through the departure of “son of a bitch Bill” by neurotically “making lists that needed doing, doing the things, going along project by project, room by room. […] It was a small whole contentment, a way of working toward a new reality” (p. 140). Thus, as a result of Bill’s escape, they both try, in different ways, to do more or less the same thing that he is trying to reach by precisely escaping: to become more real, more unitary, fate’s own makers rather than the slaves of something supposedly outside the individual self.

Bill, for his part, is achieving the opposite of that: In London, the news conference cannot take place, first because of bombing warnings and then because the building in which it was going to be held is actually bombed. He does not even get seriously injured in London but in Athens, to where he leaves secretly, escaping this time from Charlie Everson, who wants to cancel the whole thing because it is going out of hand and there is information available that hints at the danger of Bill being kidnapped. Bill does not choose Athens by himself, though, but because the contact man of the terrorist group from Beirut, George Haddad, an agreeable and educated man who easily becomes friends with Bill the night after the bombings, lives there and proposes to meet privately, “have a dialogue […]. Unfettered. No one coming round to set guidelines or issue ultimatums” (p. 138), to which Bill agrees. Furthermore, he does not get hurt heroically, in struggle for the freedom of the Swiss hostage (about whom he thinks for the first time after hearing the offer made by Haddad; as I said before, the question that interested him was more his own liberation and gaining of individuality and agency than the fate of the actual Swiss poet), but rather in a stupid car accident from which he is even able to walk away by his own forces.

In Athens, however, the negotiations toward the poet’s release do not turn out to be productive, because George seems to be getting pressure from Abu Rashid, the leader of the terrorist group. Rashid, not satisfied anymore with Bill holding a news conference where he is then expected to make a statement supporting him and his movement (because these are the terms of the pact now), wants to catch Bill himself, the greater star, and then to do something like “[g]ain the maximum attention. Then probably kill [Bill] ten minutes later. Then photograph [his] corpse and keep the picture handy for the time when it can be used most effectively”. To which Bill can only ask: “Doesn’t he think I’m worth more than my photograph?” (p. 164).

Obviously, he is not, but he still thinks that, in spite of George’s continuous warnings, he has to get to Beirut, look for the terrorists and “walk into the headquarters of Abu Rashid and tell them who he was” (p. 214). The affair has become, thus, much more than an incident for Bill, or a possibility to do something well: It is an existential chase, the last chance to be: “Bill had never walked into a place and told them who he is” (p. 214).

Sadly, but not surprisingly, Bill dies on his way to Beirut, a trip so secret that not even George knows that he has undertaken it. The reason why Bill dies is that he, even though knowing that it could be mortal, refuses to go to the doctor and take care of his liver, which was heavily injured in the car accident already mentioned (and which he further injures with his heavy drinking). This refusal may appear insane, and it is certainly important for the plot of the novel. It seems to me that it also is important for this paper, because, if I am not wrong, the existential quest I wrote about above has led Bill to think that he may have lost the ability to be an individual and an author and may instead have become a prisoner of the image world, but that, at the bottom, there is at least his body, which is, for him, the only thing in his identity that is undeniably real, pre-discursive, his material self. And that, the body being the last refuge he has got, the pain must remain pure, untouched by medicine and technology, untreated, because “[c]ertain conditions seem to speak out of some collective history of pain. […] Bill felt joined to the past, to some bloodline of intimate and renewable pain” (p. 196) [18].

That the body or, maybe better, the inner body is the only thing that is real is something that Bill has actually realized quite early in the novel, in a passage so revealing that it deserves, in my opinion, to be quoted at relative length:

“He felt a mass of phlegm wobbling in his throat but he didn’t want to get out of bed to expel it, so he swallowed the whole nasty business, a slick syrupy glop. This was the texture of his life. If someone ever writes his true biography, it will be a chronicle of gas pains and skipped heartbeats, grinding teeth and dizzy spells and smothered breath, with detailed description of Bill leaving his desk to walk to the bathroom and spit up mucus, and we see photographs of ellipsoid clots of cells, water, organic slimes, mineral salts and spotty nicotine[19]. Or descriptions just as long and detailed of Bill staying where he is and swallowing. These were his choices, his days and nights. […] This was the man he saw as himself. The biographer who didn’t examine these things (not that there would ever be a biographer) couldn’t begin to know the catchments, the odd-corner deeps of Bill’s true life” (pp. 135-136).

In fact, this passage about Bill’s “true life”, as opposed to the myth of the author, is quite clearly connected to the one in which Bill dies: In the former, he begins to remember “the batting order of the 1938 Cleveland Indians” (p. 136), which recalls memories of his childhood activities as he has already described them to Britta (pp. 45-46), while in the latter he starts thinking about his family and about a language that, as he has also told Britta in relation to his baseball-language of childhood (p. 46), was more innocent and original, “and it made his heart shake to hear these things in the street or bus or dime store, the uninventable poetry, inside the pain, of what people say” (p. 216).

As if to make the connection between these two scenes more clear, and the relevance of both to the issue I have been trying to explore in this paper, as well, at the end of the former passage quoted above in extenso, and waking up from his “phantoms” (which include, importantly, childhood memories as well as the lucid realization of his body being apparently the sole real thing about him), Bill sees that “[h]is book, smelling faintly of baby drool, was just outside the door. He heard it moan solemnly, the same grave sound that welled in his gut” (p. 136). Either there is no unity between him and his book, apart from the sounds they make independently from one another inside themselves, or he is not only no Romantic author, no modern individual, but a body that, while feeling like the real thing, may also be contained, somehow, in the book. The original language, to which he wants to return, the language “deeply and totally known” (p. 216), the only unmediated event, is death itself. And, as if to show once again that this novel is indeed a reflection on the concept of the death of the author, Bill recognizes, shortly before dying, something that is almost a textual quotation of Barthes: “It was writing that caused his life to disappear” (p. 16, see also p. 3 of this paper).

Conclusion

Having shown that Mao II is, as an unnamed critic of the Sunday Times commented in a piece quoted in my edition of the novel, “not only a disturbing work of fiction [but] a debate about the point and purpose of writing itself [and] about the survival or elimination of the individual at a time when history is passing to the crowd”, and trying, more particularly, to relate this perhaps simple realization to an expanded concept of the death of the author based on the seminal work of Roland Barthes, I have to end my paper here, but not without a vague sense of failure. This is probably not, or at least not only, because of the effects of the process of writing itself, which have been discussed above, but rather because, by focusing on Bill out of lack of time and place, I am afraid I have not been able to avoid neglecting the other main characters and the complexity of the text. I have not, for instance, analyzed the chapters about Jean-Claude Julien, the hostage, which may be a real problem, not only because he is also an author in the common term, but also because they may or may not be the text Bill is writing about the hostage shortly before his death.

I equally have not, for example, commented on Karen’s development, her slow learning of “a different language completely, unwritable and interior” (p. 180), the way she seems, at the end of the novel, to have partially emerged from the crowd, from her condition of character, by seemingly having become something like a spiritual leader for a group of homeless persons, by having now “Master’s total voice ready in her head” (p. 194).

I have, in fact, not even gone beyond Bill’s death, even though the last part of the book is devoted to Britta, who “does not photograph writers anymore. It stopped making sense” (p. 228). Now she photographs terrorists, instead, and is in Beirut to meet Rashid, the leader of the terrorist group, in an encounter in which she, by taking his picture and transforming him into an image, and by valiantly even removing the hood of one of the terrorists under his power and photographing his face (p. 236), arguably incorporates Rashid and, in a way, makes his group a little bit less menacing – and, in the process, maybe shows that she, the image person, has been the only author, the whole time.

I could not address how Scott, by being the sole keeper of the book, which he of course will not publish (although he wants Charlie Everson to know that it is finished, in order for word to get out [p. 224]), by possessing the negatives of the pictures of Bill, which Karen brings with her when she returns, and by being the person other than Bill (because, of course, nobody knows where Bill is, or if he is dead or not) whom Britta has given the right to decide if and under which conditions the pictures shall be published, has extended his mastery over the myth and become a kind of author himself, but only a fragile one, because there still is the menace of Bill’s family trying to get the house and its contents.

I may have not done justice, finally, to the issue of the crowds and the leaders which pervades the novel and which I only could superficially look at. Neither Mao nor Warhol, two historical figures that are keys to the book, which is reflected of course in the title (Mao II being one of a series of always only slightly different Warhol paintings of the same Mao photograph), have been mentioned in my paper, in spite of the fact that the title itself may refer also to Bill, whose pictures, when first seen by Scott, are described as follows: “[I]n a way, and at a glance, the differences frame to frame were so extraordinarily slight that all twelve sheets might easily be one picture repeated” (p. 222) – exactly like Mao II[20].

I have not been able (and, of course, I know that I was not expected to be, because it would be an impossible task) to produce the total paper on Mao II, and have left these topics aside with an uneasiness provoked, maybe, by the fact that, yes, I love this novel and, more generally, love writing. I can only point to these other aspects of the book, then, and make clear that I know there are innumerable other possible aspects, and other readings of the aspects, worth of study. After all, “what we have in front of us represents one thing. How we analyze it and describe and codify it is something else completely” (p.222).

[1] See Lentricchia, Frank, “The American Writer as Bad Citizen”, in Lentricchia, Frank (ed.), Introducing Don DeLillo, Durham 1991, pp. 1-6 (p. 1); or Osteen, Mark, American Magic and Dread: Don DeLillo’s Dialogue with Culture, Philadelphia 2000, p. 192.

[2] I assign the masculine form of the third pronoun in singular to the modern individual because that is the way it has been always connoted in the Western tradition, exactly like in the case of the Barthesian “Author” to which I now turn.

[3] I consciously do not want to use the capitalized term “Author” like Barthes does, firstly because he himself does not do it consequentially and throughout the whole essay, and secondly because it is, in my opinion, understandable even without the capital “A”. When I write “author” in this paper, thus, I truly mean “author” as in the extended sense I am proposing, not simply “writer”, “artist”, etc.

[4] See Burke, Seán, The Death and Return of the Author: Criticism and Subjectivity in Barthes, Foucault and Derrida, Edinburgh 1992, p. 20.

[5] From Barthes, Roland, “The Death of the Author”, in Barthes, Roland, Image-Music-Text (trans. and ed. by Heath, Stephen), London 1977, pp. 142-148 (p. 142).

[6] From Burke, op. cit., p. 21.

[7] Barthes, “The Death of the Author”, in op. cit., p. 147.

[8] Idem, p. 147.

[9] Idem, p. 148.

[10] For an exhaustive critical approach to this essay, see Burke, op. cit., pp. 20-61.

[11] Barthes, “The Death of the Author”, in op. cit., p. 146

[12] Idem, p. 143.

[13] Idem, p. 146.

[14] See Burke, op. cit., p. 24; and DeLillo, Don, Libra, New York 1988, p. 164.

[15] All page references to Mao II are provided parenthetically inside the text, and have the British edition of 1992 as their base.

[16] See Osteen, op. cit., pp. 206-207.

[17] DeLillo began writing Mao II less than a month after the condemnation: siehe Keesey, Douglas, Don DeLillo, New York 1993, pp. xii-xiii.

[18] To be more precise, there is a moment in which he decides to see the doctor after a lot of consideration, but then he is told that the ferry to Beirut is working again (p. 212). Nevertheless, my reading of Bill as someone trying to keep the pain because of its condition of being something real is not necessarily refuted by that, firstly because, and maybe due to the impossibility of being an author, he contradicts himself quite often (his views concerning novelists, individuals, crowds and terrorists are not always coherent). Secondly, because he does not always take the right decisions for his aim of individual autonomy, as the failure of his strategy of seclusion, or his letting Scott become his kidnapper, shows. Thirdly, because he, as I said, decides to go to Beirut anyway, the priority being to “increase the flow of meaning” seriously damaged by the detention of the poet (p. 200).

[19] But not of his face!

[20] This insight I owe to Osteen, op. cit., p. 210.

 

(Crédito de imagen de thumbnail: https://newrepublic.com/article/133004/don-delillo-back-future. Crédito de imagen de inicio de post: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_II).

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